by Jenny Farrell
500 years ago, on the 15 May 1525, one of the final battles of the German Peasants’ War (1524–1525) broke out. The War was the largest social and political uprising of the early modern period in Europe. The peasants, who constituted the majority of the population, were trapped in a system of landlordism that forced them to labour, pay levies, and other feudal obligations to the nobility.
At the same time, an emerging bourgeois class was developing in the cities, gaining economic significance through trade and crafts but remaining largely politically oppressed. The lower nobility was also under economic pressure and losing influence due to the centralization of power and the rise of princes and cities. Meanwhile, the princes and the Catholic Church defended their privileges, which increasingly met with resistance from the population. Class contradictions intensified.
Even before the War, grassroots movements reflected growing social tensions. The Bundschuh, a secret peasant organization active in southwestern Germany in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, demanded the abolition of feudal burdens and the restoration of traditional rights. The Poor Conrad movement, which emerged in Württemberg in 1514, also opposed tax increases and the arbitrariness of the nobility. Although this uprising was suppressed, there was growing willingness of peasants to rise against their oppressors.
The class struggle against feudalism
In the late Middle Ages and early modern period, similar peasant unrest occurred in many parts of Europe— in France, England, Bohemia, Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Sweden. These uprisings were often locally confined but shared common features with the German Peasants’War, particularly the demand for social and economic justice and the rejection of feudal rule. In this sense, the War was part of a Europe-wide class struggle against feudalism. It ultimately failed, like many similar rebellions, because it lacked strong allies in the rising bourgeoisie. Nevertheless, these struggles contributed in the long term to the dissolution of the feudal system and the development of early capitalist societies.
The translation of the Bible into the vernacular during the Renaissance played a crucial role in nearly all these uprisings. It challenged the existing religious order and made biblical texts accessible to the masses, which had previously been available only to the Church. The invention of the printing press further amplified this impact. Long before Luther’s translation, there were German versions of the Scripture. There is evidence that artists of the time had access to these. The Bible became a tool of resistance by spreading the idea of human equality, and a more direct relationship with God without the mediation of the Church.
The Peasants’ War broke out in 1524 in southern Germany and quickly spread to Thuringia, Franconia, and Swabia. The peasants formulated their demands in programs such as the Twelve Articles, which called for the abolition of serfdom, the reduction of levies, the free election of pastors, the restoration of traditional rights, and an end to feudal jurisdiction. These demands were both religious and social in nature and were set in the context of the Reformation (1517), which challenged the authority of the Church and feudal lords.
In contrast to the successful English Revolution (1640–1689) and the French Revolution (1789 –1799), the Peasants’ War failed because the bourgeoisie did not ally with the peasants. The bourgeoisie feared radical upheavals and ultimately sided with the princes. The uprisings were brutally suppressed by the combined forces of the nobility and princes.
Christoffel van Sichem, Portrait of Thomas Müntzer
Engels distinguishes between the moderate Reformation of Luther, which allied with the princes, and the radical Reformation of Müntzer, which had revolutionary potential. Luther’s hostility toward the rebellious peasants underscores his alliance with the ruling classes. One of the final battles took place in Frankenhausen on May 15, 1525, where the peasant forces, led by Thomas Müntzer, were decisively crushed by the nobility. Müntzer was captured, tortured, and beheaded.
Several outstanding artists of the time sided with the peasants and supported their cause in their works. These artists often came into conflict with the ruling powers.
Albrecht Dürer
Among the significant works of this period are the pamphlet woodcuts and prints by Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) and his circle. Dürer’s work inspired contemporaries such as Mathis Grünewald, Tilman Riemenschneider, and Jörg Ratgeb, creating a powerful connection between art and the people. Born in Nuremberg, the son of a goldsmith, Dürer trained under Michael Wolgemut and later travelled to Basel, Strasbourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. There, he became acquainted with significant works of the Renaissance and their innovations. His portraits reflect his deep interest in the individuality and dignity of the human being.
Dürer was the first German artist to recognize peasants as aesthetic subjects. His famous copper engraving Three Peasants in Conversation (1497) shows subtle hints of their rebellious spirit and takes a distinctly revolutionary stance. The engraving from the late 15th century is far more than a simple depiction of country folk in their mature years. It is a multifaceted work of art deeply rooted in the social and political tensions of its time – a time when the Bundschuh was already active.
Parallel to this, the humanist movement shaped the intellectual landscape, with Erasmus of Rotterdam as one of its leading figures. His writings on social justice and his criticism of the Church and society were also known among the rebels.
In Dürer’s engraving (above), the weapons of the men on the left and right immediately catch the eye. The sword of the man on the left – judging by his clothing and headgear, likely an urban craftsman – runs almost exactly along the central axis of the engraving and takes up nearly half the height of the image. The central position of the sword underscores the impression of a new self-confidence and resolution among the people. The sack slung over his shoulder suggests that he is on the move. Beneath his tunic, a shirt is visible. The peasant on the right also carries a knife on his belt. His ominous long leather boots with spurs form a humorous contrast to the eggs he carries in his basket, perhaps returning from the market. His headgear – a medieval hood with a fur hat worn over it – marks him as someone who works outdoors.
Another striking detail is the man with the turban in the centre of the image. The turban in Dürer’s time often symbolized scholars or artists (Dürer, for example, portrayed his master Wolgemut wearing a turban). The man could thereby represent an intellectual who, through his ideas, writings, or artwork, supports the resistance against the ruling order. In connection with the peasant movement, he could be interpreted as a mediator between theory and practice. His hand reaching into his breast pocket, as if pulling out a document, reinforces this impression. His weapon is of a different kind but still significant. Dürer does not simply depict the men as working folk but as people caught between ideas and active resistance—a revolution in the making, where thought and action are inseparably linked.
His Peasant Monument in Instruction in Measurement (1525) attests to his enduring sympathy for the rebels and an understanding of their tragedy.
Among the artists presented here, Dürer is the only one who depicted peasants outside a religious context. The following three artists, contemporaries of Dürer, were more strongly influenced by the late Gothic style, while their works also reflected the spirit of the Renaissance and the impending Reformation, which found its political expression in the Peasants’ War. All three created altars and ecclesiastical works that spoke a revolutionary language.
Mathis Grünewald
Mathis Gothart-Nithart (c. 1470–1528), known as Grünewald, created one of the most significant works in German art history with the Isenheim Altarpiece (below, 1512–1516). He was close to Reformation ideas and sympathized with the peasants’ struggle. His work raises the voice of the oppressed and envisions liberation.
The Isenheim Altarpiece deliberately breaks with the traditional depictions of its time. Grünewald’s Crucifixion scene is one of the most expressive portrayals of Christ’s suffering. Instead of symmetrical harmony, he shows the tormented Saviour in unsparing detail. His body is covered in wounds, marked by disease, torture, and pain. This drastic depiction goes beyond mere piety and becomes an indictment of the cruelty and inhumanity of the ruling powers. Christ becomes a symbol of the suffering of the poor and oppressed, who endured the arbitrariness of the Church and nobility.
John the Baptist points with a strikingly long finger to the crucified Christ. The Latin inscription on a red panel comes from the Bible and underscores the significance of Christ as the Redeemer. John is depicted here as a “witness to the Word of God,” placing Christ alone at the centre. This symbolism is closely connected to the Reformation idea of “sola scriptura” (Scripture alone) – the Bible as the sole source and foundation of faith. This would later become a central demand of the Reformers.
On the reverse side of the altarpiece, Grünewald depicts the Resurrection of Christ in overwhelming light. Christ appears as a radiant risen figure, clothed in bright red and gold, rising from his tomb. A huge, sun-like aureole surrounds him, setting him apart from the dark night sky. Below him, three tomb guards collapse to the ground. Their clothing does not resemble Roman legionary armour but rather the armour typical of early 16th century mercenaries. Their demeanour expresses panic and helplessness.
Grünewald thus establishes a direct connection to the political and ecclesiastical powers, specifically the military and political dominance of the Church and nobility. The breaking rock in the background reinforces the impression of an impending collapse of the old order. Thus, the altarpiece is an early testament to Reformation thought. Grünewald portrays Christ solely according to the biblical texts. This emphasis on Scripture (“sola scriptura”) is a call to return to the original message of Christianity: solidarity with the weak and oppressed. The message of the Resurrection – “a new heaven and a new earth” – gives them hope for a world where justice and peace prevail. The altarpiece thus becomes a symbol of resistance against exploitation and oppression.
Tilman Riemenschneider
The sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (c. 1460–1531) was not only an outstanding artist but also politically active. A member of the Upper Council in Würzburg in 1514 and 1518, he was elected mayor of the city in 1521. During the Peasants’ War in 1525, Würzburg sided with the peasants against the territorial lord. After the defeat of the peasant armies, the city had to capitulate. Riemenschneider was arrested and tortured. It is likely that his hands, the tools of the artist, were deliberately hurt or broken. The repression he suffered led to his economic and artistic decline. On July 7, 1531, Riemenschneider died in Würzburg.
Riemenschneider is one of the most significant sculptors of the late Gothic and early Renaissance periods. His works impress with lively, expressive depictions that combine human dignity and social reality. His commitment to the common people shaped both his life and his artistic work. In his sculptures, he captured the suffering and desires of ordinary people – peasants, craftsmen, merchants – and demonstrated deep empathy for their fates.
Riemenschneider’s masterpiece is considered to be the Holy Blood Altar (main panel above, 1499–1505). The right wing of the altarpiece shows Christ’s entry into Jerusalem – a motif imbued with a popular yet subtly Reformation visual language. The figures appear realistic and expressive in their posture and facial expressions, with natural, peasant features. Their faces reflect great individuality and life experience. A particularly touching detail is the figure of little Zacchaeus, who climbs a tree for a better view. This scene appears almost humorous, yet deeply human: it shows the small man’s longing for knowledge and a connection with Christ. This narrative skill characterizes Riemenschneider – a closeness to the emotions and behaviour of ordinary people.
The simplicity of the depiction harmonizes in a way with Reformation ideals. While late Gothic art was often characterized by ornate, decorative elements, Riemenschneider developed a clear, simple visual language. As in many of his later works, he dispensed with painting the wood, allowing the interplay of light and shadow in the wood carving to stand out even more. This could also be seen as an expression of a focus on the essential, in line with “sola scriptura.” The filigree work of the relief is extraordinary – besides the fine folds of the garments and the dynamic movement of the donkey, the multi-layered depth effect through the perspective arrangement of the figures is impressive. All of this demonstrates Riemenschneider’s masterful command of wood carving. His decision to reject coloured finishes was revolutionary and underscores the importance of the sculptural form.
The main panel of the altarpiece – the Last Supper – is equally simple and popular in execution. Riemenschneider avoids idealized, stylized depictions and presents the apostles as individual, expressive personalities. The facial features are detailed and contemporary. The realism in the various emotional reactions of the disciples is striking, depicted in a lively, human scene – a contrast to the rigid, sacred depictions of earlier centuries. The disciples sit closely together, emphasizing community and diverging from the hierarchical arrangements of earlier Last Supper scenes. Through the restless movements, Riemenschneider creates a spontaneous-looking scene that enhances the impression of an authentic, realistic event.
The filigree late Gothic architecture in the background, with tall, pointed-arch windows and intricate structures, gives the work spatial depth and an almost three-dimensional effect that draws the viewer into the scene. The natural wood enhances the sculptural quality of the figures and directs focus to their faces, gestures, and postures.
The right wing of the altarpiece shows Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane, while his disciples sleep and the crowd approaches. Riemenschneider also designs this moment with great narrative density, masterful wood carving, and a remarkable sense of human characters. In the foreground, the three disciples sleep, each given individual features by the artist. Despite the books they hold, they fall asleep at this crucial moment – a depiction of human weakness. In the background, a curious crowd is gathered behind a willow fence, pausing at the simple wooden gate. A single figure climbs over the fence, humorously reminiscent of the Zacchaeus figure in the left wing. Again, the folk figures are individually crafted, but they appear smaller and darker, enhancing the spatial distance and tension between foreground and background. The simple wooden gate and willow fence underscore Riemenschneider’s popular aesthetic. His depiction of the garden as a rocky wasteland contrasts with the traditional portrayal of the garden as a lush olive grove. The artist also breaks new ground here by reflecting Jesus’ inner state through the barren landscape.
Tilman Riemenschneider’s art was revolutionary: through realistic, popular depictions and the rejection of coloured finishes, he created a new aesthetic dimension. His figures, characterized by everyday features and emotions, reflected the worries and joys of ordinary people, making his art identity-forming. After the defeat of the peasants, imprisonment, and torture, Riemenschneider died in 1531 in relative obscurity. His fate symbolizes the tragedy of an artist who paid a high price for his convictions and solidarity with the oppressed.
Jörg Ratgeb
Jörg Ratgeb (1480–1526) was also not only a significant painter of the late Gothic period but also an engaged fighter for social justice. Ratgeb began his artistic career in Stuttgart, where he was granted town citizenship in 1503. In 1509, he moved to Heilbronn, where due to his marriage to a serf, he was denied civic rights, and his attempts to buy his family out of serfdom proved unsuccessful.
When the Peasants’ War broke out, Ratgeb joined the revolutionary peasants and was even elected as the peasants’ chancellor. He was one of the few citizens who actively sided with the insurgents. After the defeat of the peasants at Böblingen, Ratgeb was arrested and sentenced to death by quartering for high treason.
Ratgeb’s Herrenberg Altarpiece (above, 1518–1519) goes far beyond a purely religious depiction. It combines biblical scenes with social and political criticism. Instead of idealized saints, he shows realistic figures of the common people, thereby translating the biblical message into the life reality of ordinary folk. The main panels of the altarpiece – the Last Supper, the Flagellation, the Crucifixion, and the Resurrection – are remarkable not only for their depiction of the salvation story but also for their socially critical message. The tormentors of Jesus wear 16th century armour, condemning the violence of contemporary authorities and the oppression of the people. Judas, dressed in conspicuous yellow – a colour associated with betrayal and heresy – appears as a leitmotif throughout all panels. Other symbols of moral decay, such as playing cards and a fly, further underscore Ratgeb’s criticism of the powerful. The disciples are depicted as ordinary folk with individual features and lively gestures, making the scene appear natural and dynamic. In the background, additional episodes are embedded, such as the approaching guards, the praying Jesus and the sleeping disciples.
In the Flagellation scene, Ratgeb intensifies the brutality: their ornate armour symbolizes the arrogant self-importance of the worldly rulers. A spiral staircase in the background creates spatial depth and leads the eye to further scenes of abuse, portraying violence as omnipresent and escalating. Pontius Pilate, who condemns Jesus, bears the features of Emperor Maximilian I, while a banner of the Holy Roman Empire flies above him. With this clear message, Ratgeb holds the rulers of his time responsible for the suffering of the oppressed.
The Crucifixion scene combines various narrative levels: in the background, the Deposition, and Entombment of Jesus are integrated. At the centre stands Jesus on the cross, flanked by the two thieves, while light emphasizes him as the focal point. A stylized medieval city in the background adds depth to the image. Mary’s pain is unmistakable, and a mounted soldier in armour observes the scene – a symbol of the ruthless enforcement of worldly power. The crowd ascending the hill illustrates that the execution is staged as a public spectacle.
The Resurrection scene forms the hopeful conclusion. Christ emerges from the tomb with a raised hand, surrounded by a radiant aura of light. The white banner with the red cross symbolizes the triumph over death. The tomb guards and mercenaries are exaggerated – twisted limbs, slack heads, and slipped helmets. The inclusion of additional scenes – the resurrection of the dead and the encounter with Mary Magdalene – complements the central message: the victory of life over death.
Ratgeb’s artistic revolution lies in his popular visual language, emotional depiction, and innovative narrative technique. The Herrenberg Altarpiece openly denounces the violence of the authorities, the oppression of the poor, and the hypocrisy of the powerful, making it a mirror of the unrest preceding the Reformation and the Peasants’ War.
Despite the peasants’ military defeat, this war was never forgotten. It remains the first war of class conflict to challenge the feudal order in Germany. The works of artists like Riemenschneider and Ratgeb, who suffered and died for their convictions, are not only testimonies of a bygone era but also enduring reminders of the power of art to condemn social injustice and preserve hope for a better world. In our time, their courage remains an inspiration for all who fight for justice and human dignity. The fate of these artists demonstrates the high price of resistance – yet their works have endured, proving that the struggle for freedom and justice is never in vain.
